An Overview of Buddhism
*Also
check out our individual sections: Chan/Zen
Buddhism,
Pragmatism and
Pragmatic
Buddhism*
Central
Concepts in Buddhist Thought and Practice
by Jim
Eubanks
Introduction
Buddhism’s
long history has allowed it to adopt unique forms in
various cultures, mostly throughout Asia, but more recently
in the West. A number of unifying Buddhist principles are
shared by most Buddhist establishments, and these
commonalities serve to connect the major traditions. This
article will outline some of these shared Buddhist views so
that the reader can familiarize him or herself with a
general understanding of Buddhism. Due to the impossibility
of articulating a single, universal perspective that
adequately represents the various forms of Buddhism, even
this general overview will reflect the form of Buddhism of
which the author is most acquainted, Pragmatic Buddhism.
Most conclusively, Buddhism, in all of its forms, aims to:
1) provide human beings with a practical and achievable
path that leads to the alleviation of suffering or
unsatisfactoriness through the recognition of dependent
origination and its conclusions (the interdependence and
interconnectivity of all things), and 2) cultivate human
actions that stem from this understanding.
Buddhism originated in northern India over 2500 years ago.
While many Buddhist traditions converge on aspects of the
birth, life, enlightenment and death of the historical
Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama, it is recognized in modern
scholarship that these stories are not verifiable, as we
have no primary sources from Siddhartha himself. The
stories concerning Siddhartha’s life were compiled in a
retrospective manner, in an attempt to solidify the most
meaningful aspects of the numerous interpretations found
throughout the early oral traditions of Buddhism. The
Buddhisms of today are the result of centuries of revision
and refinement, which includes the incorporation of
cultural elements unrelated to the historical message of
Siddhartha Gautama, but that are nonetheless meaningful
interpretations of the Buddhist message.
There
are key aspects of the stories of Siddhartha’s life that
serve to enhance an understanding of Buddhism’s purpose.
Unlike most Western religions, where the central prophet or
messiah figure’s significance stems from his or her
historical existence and physical acts, the historical
reality of Siddhartha is not important in Buddhism.
Instead, the vital element in Buddhism is the efficacy of
Buddhist methodology, an actual path that leads to the
alleviation of suffering or unsatisfactoriness in this
world. Unsatisfactoriness encompasses the pervasive
question of the “self” and the basic nature of personal
identity. This question of the self arises when we perceive
ourselves to be separate from the rest of our world, in a
way that is deeply disturbing. This erroneous view of the
self as separate from the rest our world—as opposed to
playing an integral, connected role—is what Buddhism
addresses through its various contemplative and meditative
methods.
Buddhism
posits an interconnected and interdependent reality where
humans are not separate, but connected in an inherently
meaningful way. We are important precisely because we are
here, and we function as a necessary aspect of our
experiences. Our world and our experiences are not
characterized by separation, but are the continuously
generated syntheses between the perceiver and the
perceived, an ongoing interplay of mutual dependence. This
focus on interconnectedness and interdependence makes
personal Buddhist action simultaneously a social action, a
point repeatedly emphasized by comparative scholar Peter
Hershock, also a practicing Chan Buddhist. We help and care
for our neighbors not simply because we are told to do so,
but because we see that they are integral to our world just
like ourselves. Moreover, we see others engaged in the same
basic struggle as ourselves: as sentient beings seeking a
solution to unsatisfactoriness. Buddhism acknowledges that
the realization (“enlightenment”) of dependent origination
(causation) leads to understanding and action that provides
solutions to unsatisfactoriness, and is achievable by all
people.
The
Life of Siddhartha Gautama
Most
Buddhist traditions agree that Siddhartha Gautama was born
to a wealthy king in Northern India. A seer is said to have
predicted that Siddhartha would become a great king, or a
great spiritual leader. In an attempt to cultivate the
former, Siddhartha’s father, it is said, ensured that all
forms of unsatisfactoriness stayed out of his son’s life.
In his early adulthood, Siddhartha’s curiosity compelled
him to climb his palace walls and discover the condition of
average, everyday human beings. His encounter with four
human conditions, 1) a dead person, 2) a dying person, 3) a
decrepit person and 4) an impoverished person challenged
Siddhartha’s understanding of his world. Having been
ignorant to such human conditions, the question of human
unsatisfactoriness and a solution for its alleviation
preoccupied his adult life. Siddhartha renounced his
nobility and wealth, and set out on a course that would
lead to answers.
The
first step for Siddhartha was to learn as much as possible
about his contemporaries’ answers to the problems
associated with human unsatisfactoriness. The Indian
intellectual environment during this time encompassed all
of the major schools of philosophical thought. Included in
this milieu were the traditionalists, rationalists, and
empiricists. On the extremes, there was strict materialism
(radical empiricism) and the metaphysical beliefs of the
Upanishadic tradition (radical traditionalism). Strict
materialism encompasses the belief that the material world
is all that exists, and that the human psyche (mind,
consciousness) does not exist at all. The materialists, who
asserted only what could be known through the senses and
adhered to the philosophy of determinism (all things are on
a fixed course and human action cannot affect real change),
believed that:
1) there
was no such thing as a “self” or “soul”;
2) that the laws governing the Universe and their
consequences (karma) did not affect the human mind--they
did not believe in the actual existence of consciousness,
much like the modern philosopher Daniel Dennett; and
3) that
there is no continuity after death, only annihilation.
On the
other end of the spectrum were the metaphysical theories
contained in the religious Upanishadic tradition.
“Metaphysics” means “beyond the physical,” and it addresses
ideas that cannot be proven through the senses. The
Upanishadic school asserted:
1)
the existence of an individual soul (atman);
2) the reality of human consciousness and karma; and
3) the continuity of one’s personality after death.
Siddhartha
committed himself to an intense study of the major schools
of Indian thought in the accepted manner of his time:
personal apprenticeship with verified Masters.
Though
Siddhartha was confirmed to have mastered the various
schools he studied, which included traditional yogic
asceticism of the Upanishadic tradition as well as
empiricism and the analytical traditions of the
rationalists, he rejected the teachings he received from
these schools, citing their extreme and narrow orientations
as a significant limitation. According to Siddhartha,
extreme and narrow views are not only incapable of
providing effective solutions to our problems, they do not
adequately describe the holism of our experiences. Extreme
and narrow views exaggerate some points while ignoring
others. Siddhartha’s study and mastery of the available
traditions had not yet answered the basic human question
that mattered to him the most: how do human beings
alleviate persistent unsatisfactoriness in this world?
Siddhartha
is said to have found solace by sitting in contemplation,
or reflective quietude, and meditation (awareness
cultivation) under a Bodhi tree. According to Buddhist
tradition, it was under the Bodhi tree where Siddhartha
realized the source of human unsatisfactoriness as
perpetual craving and unnatural attachment. He recognized
the alleviation of human unsatisfactoriness as awareness of
dependent origination, the process by which all things in
this world arise and pass away--known as “causation” in the
West. While the traditions Siddhartha (who will now be
referred to as “the Buddha”) studied focused primarily on a
deeply personal realization experience, his pursuit
involved a question that was pertinent to all of humanity;
the results of his insight under the Bodhi tree necessarily
involved all members of the human community. As Buddhist
scholar David E. Shaner has pointed out, realization in the
Buddhist tradition is necessarily a personal and social
question, which involves not only oneself, but also one’s
entire community of sentient beings.
In order for this personal and social realization to occur,
it is necessary for one to embrace 1) rigorous self-honesty
about his or her current condition, and he or she must also
2) determine a suitable methodology and worldview through
which he or she can attend to the problems associated with
unsatisfactoriness, especially the question of the self
mentioned earlier. By embracing both of these key aspects,
rigorous self-honesty and a perspective that yields
meaningful solutions to the problem of human
unsatisfactoriness, one authenticates his or her unique
situation in this life, and a realization of
interconnectedness and interdependence of all things
results. Authentication of one’s contingency in this world
is the condition necessary for realization to take place.
The notion of authentication specifically refers to the
awareness of one’s own contingency and acculturation, and
the commitment and rigorous self-honesty necessary to
embrace a more inclusive, holistic worldview that allows
the dissolution of dualistic thinking--the belief that what
we experience in our world is separate or disconnected. As
we will see, authentication is akin to a meaningful notion
of human liberation, and this relies on a connected
experience.
After his personal realization, the Buddha spent the
remainder of his life guiding others in what would come to
be known as the Buddhist path.
Buddhist
Principles: Dependent Origination, Nonduality, Karma, and
Rebirth
Buddhist
principles stem from an awareness of: 1) the binding
conditions of humanity, especially as made known through
unsatisfactoriness, and 2) the realization of dependent
origination. Additionally, Buddhist methodology seeks to
address present problems in this world, and is therefore
pragmatic in approach. The Buddha’s pragmatic approach was
rooted in his keen observations and understanding of the
contingency of all things. Such an understanding
necessarily acknowledged that each person would require
different degrees of teachings to arrive at realization, a
pragmatic notion known as “skillful means” (upaya). Many of
the metaphysical notions employed by the Buddha were
intended as such skillful means, to reach varied audiences
who related to such teachings. The historical record is
full of examples of the Buddha altering his teaching
methods to facilitate realization in his students.
The affinity for awareness of our experiences and present
conditions has its roots in the ancient Sanskrit concept of
rta, meaning “natural order” or “every event has a cause.”
Consequently, dependent origination plays a central role in
Buddhist thought. Because every event has a cause, the
Universe is seen as interdependent and interconnected, and
all things that arise and pass away relate to all other
things--known succinctly as dependent origination. This
particular concept and its central place in Buddhist
thought is one of the major reasons for the mutual interest
and agreement between Buddhism and modern science, a
paradigm grounded in causation.
Given
that a Buddhist perspective acknowledges that all things
emerge from continuity, Buddhism is well known for its
emphasis on nonduality. Instead of viewing the world in
terms of “good” vs. “evil,” “liberal” vs. “conservative,”
“us” vs. “them,” Buddhism recognizes that the orientations
and views humans take stem from particular perspectives,
which each yield their own conclusions, dependent on the
contingency and present needs of the observer. All human
beings are privy to a particular albeit limited perspective
of the whole. But by staying mindful of the knowledge that
our personal views are limited, and by retaining an
understanding that all things are connected, we can
contribute to personal and social harmony that acknowledges
difference and variety as just unique manifestations of the
whole. Comparative philosopher Thomas P. Kasulis, in his
book Intimacy or Integrity: Philosophy and Cultural
Difference, says it well:
...the
better we can adjust the way we analyze and communicate,
the more successful we will be in establishing fruitful,
pragmatic, and effective relations with a diversity of
others. There is something we will have to give up,
however--namely, the idea that there is only one legitimate
take on reality...I cannot argue orientations; I can only
argue within them. (157)
Kasulis points out that from each of our perspectives, what
we see is really what we see. The important point in
Buddhism is that even among the differences, we recognize
that these relative perspectives are to be holistically
situated, where our individual views contribute positively
to the harmony of the whole, whether it is to human society
or environmental health. This inclusive perspective, where
we keep our eye on the big picture even when we cannot see
it, must be cultivated. Like any positive attribute we seek
to incorporate into our mind-body, we must practice and
act, as this teaches us how to become better at being good
human beings for ourselves and others. Just like athletes
who must train themselves to perform on the field, seeing
the world in holistic terms requires active participation
on behalf of the practitioner. Holism as such dissolves the
problems that arise due to dualism, or the belief that
things in this world are separate and disconnected. One
such dualism is the problem of the “self,” where we
perceives ourselves as existentially separate and
disconnected from other people and our environment.
An awareness of dependent origination and nondualism are
cultivated in Buddhism through prelinguistic awareness
(also known as awareness of undifferentiated or pure
experience). This cultivation of pure experience without
the attachments and labels of thought and language is
usually achieved through awareness cultivation practice,
sometimes called “just sitting in mindfulness.” This allows
one to develop an understanding of and appreciation for
dependent origination as the “glue” of our experiences.
Perceiving holism can be cultivated through a continuous
engagement of pure experience--through regular practice--so
that acceptance and more inclusive understanding can become
integrated into the practitioner’s mind-body. Such an
immediate awareness of our experiences allows us to see the
dependent origination of all things; this particular view
grants us the ability to let go of our cravings and
attachments that propagate the cycle of unsatisfactoriness.
How
does one embrace an immediate awareness of his or her
experiences? Uncultivated, our perspectives are distorted
by our acculturated attachments. Instead of experiencing
our world in an inclusive, holistic way, we screen our
experiences with judgement, preference and differentiation,
mostly due to our biopsychosocial acculturation. These
distortions stem from the labels that we attach to our
experiences, our craving for and our fear of them. These
labels are insufficient to describe our experiences, as our
experiences are fleeting; they are integral to the
continuous change of dependent origination. This is the
world most of us live in most of the time, what philosopher
Martin Heidegger called average everydayness. Nondualism is
realized during practice such as awareness cultivation when
one is able to let go of the desire to constantly
discriminate his or her experiences. Most important is the
understanding that nonduality characterizes our
experiences; thus, even when going about our normal lives
in the world of thought and language, where discrimination
and labels are necessary for practical purposes and to
weave the web of social interaction with others, we can
know that our experiences remain unified. In this way, the
practice of awareness cultivation in Buddhism is an
exercise in realizing a more inclusive, holistic worldview,
one characterized by nonduality. This achievement of
increased awareness and a larger perspective does not occur
without rigorous self-honesty (to identify current
weaknesses), acceptance of personal perspectives that work
well for us individually, and continuous practice (to
literally “train” the mind-body how to think and act
holistically). Buddhist practice, as awareness cultivation,
is a powerfully effective way to realize nondualism.
When
considering how to obtain reliable information from a world
in which we are part and parcel, Buddhism recognizes three
primary epistemological (how one comes to know) methods:
1)
testimony of another (usually an authority);
2) account from an authoritative text; and
3) personal experience (experiential verification)
All
of these components must be considered, and no single
source of knowledge is sufficient to generate an informed
understanding of the world. However, method (3),
experiential verification, plays a particularly prominent
role in Buddhism. This is often demonstrated in the
Buddha’s famous admonition, “Be a light unto your selves.”
This idea of personal veracity of our experiences is also
highlighted in pragmatism, where authentication is used to
describe the personal investigation (contemplation) of
one’s present views in such a way that he or she can
choose--from among the viable options for that person--the
views that work best to create sustainable harmony in one’s
life and one’s society.
Acknowledging
(1) and (2) above as valid epistemological methods allows
for a social dimension of knowledge to become integrated
into one’s understanding, and this helps to prevent
individuals from accepting extreme views through their
personal experiences alone. Avoiding the extremes leads to
Buddhism’s middle way. It serves the same function as
professional associations today, which help govern the
overall direction of individual practitioners in a way that
preserves the integrity of the entire profession, a concept
described by Richard Rorty as intersubjective agreement.
The particularly important method of (3) experiential
verification necessitates consistent Buddhist
practice--usually contemplation and meditation--as this
refines the ability of a person to trust his or her senses
through the cultivation of awareness and the implementation
of mindfulness in everyday life. Buddhists posit that
cultivated awareness is a requisite for trusting the
information gathered from the senses, to curb any tendency
towards dogmatic views. The refinement of one’s ability to
calmly perceive the world and thus trust his or her senses
is a primary reason why meditation is central to Buddhist
practice. An end result of this cultivation process,
exemplified in long-time practitioners, is a perceptible
and deep calmness, or relaxation in the practitioner’s
disposition and actions. We have now traced what might be
called the “triple As” or the “threefold formula”:
awareness, acceptance, and action.
From
a moral standpoint, dependent origination implies that
nothing in the universe occurs at random, or apart from
anything else. “Randomness” and “accident” are names given
to events that are too complex for human beings to fully
understand from our limited perspectives. Though a person
does not always intend to take a particular action, there
are very specific causes that converge and allow given
consequences to emerge. Thus, while most events are beyond
our personal control, the insight of dependent origination
allows us to better understand the types of actions that
will elicit positive or harmonious consequences, and those
that will lead to negative or disruptive results. This
recognition of balancing actions (equilibrium) is
acknowledged by modern physics, and is what Buddhists call
karma.
Related
to dependent origination and karma is the Buddhist concept
of “merit.” Merit, stated simply, is positive karmic effect
that stems from harmonious action. The knowledge that such
positive karmic results extend to all things, and
specifically, all sentient beings is reason for the
Buddhist practitioner to highlight the significance of
merit in his or her practice. Merit, understood in this
way, is not an “accumulation” or “storing up,” but rather
is continually discharged to all things through the mindful
actions of the Buddhist practitioner. Dedicating the merit
that is discharged during Buddhist practice to all sentient
beings, for example, is a symbolic recognition of
interdependence and interconnectivity.
The
question of “rebirth” necessarily follows a discussion of
karma. What exactly is rebirth? Unlike reincarnation, which
assumes the existence of an existentially discrete or
independent “self” (or “soul”), rebirth implies that
character dispositions or personality carry over in some
form after death. It is viewed in Buddhism that a person
will make a transition into a harmonious phase of existence
because of his or her action-oriented self-cultivation,
where one puts into practice the conclusions of his or her
personal authentication and realization. An understanding
of dependent origination and an ability to integrate this
understanding into his or her mind-body and everyday life
leads to human liberation, whereby the fear, uncertainty
and unsatisfactoriness of a dualistic perspective no longer
hold us captive. Even though we cannot know the state of
human beings after death, any transition that may take
place for the realizing, unattaching person is necessarily
a transition that remains connected to all other things, as
the idea of an independent existence is rejected in
Buddhism. This is a common source of misunderstanding in
Buddhism: that upon realization, one “exits” existence.
This, however, does not take into account the central
Buddhist concept of the dependent origination of all
things, and its two fruits: interconnectivity and
interdependence. One’s liberation after realization is a
freedom or release from the perpetual unsatisfactoriness
created by dualistic craving and attachments in oneself. It
is not a literal liberation into a different realm, or into
non-existence (something that exists cannot be
“annihilated,” but can only transform). The Buddha rejected
both eternalism (the belief in permanent existence) and
annihilationism (the belief in permanent destruction).
Buddhist practices that focus on achieving liberation in
other realms or dissolving the self into a state of
non-being, such as some Tibetan and Chinese and Japanese
Pure Land practices, do so for the functional benefit of
the practice first and foremost.
A
modern or Western interpretation of “rebirth” is that it
simply implies that one is not “annihilated” upon death,
and that one necessarily remains interconnected with the
rest of existence. Thus, while loyalty to experiential
verification calls one to refrain from speculating on what
exactly happens after death, it can at least be
known--through modern physics and awareness of dependent
origination--that like all things, human beings are not
“created or destroyed.” Whatever the case, we can at least
know that we will remain an integral part of our Universe
in some form, though not in our current form (nothing is
eternal or unchanging), which includes the “self” or
“consciousness” we presently know. This is a valid and
widely held interpretation of rebirth in the Buddhist West.
In
remaining loyal to experiential verification, Buddhism does
not ponder on the question of God or Gods, as such
metaphysical inquiries are beyond the realm of human
sensory ability and knowledge. Thus, it is important to
recognize that while Buddhism does not answer or speculate
about the question of theism, it does not deny it either.
From the Buddhist perspective, humans are charged with
dealing with the issues of everyday life in this world,
because here and now is the location of positive
transformation.
Three
Foundational Concepts in Buddhist Thought
There
are three foundational concepts in Buddhist thought that
stem from an understanding of the previous section on
“Buddhist Principles,” which will help explain Buddhist
morality. These elements are:
1)
impermanence (anicca);
2) unsatisfactoriness (dukkha); and
3) selflessness (anatman).
The
doctrine of dependent origination implies that all things
arise from the same processual activity, or “way-making”
(Dao) and pass back to this continuously moving, flowing
activity, revealing their impermanence of form. Rather than
talking in terms of “being” or “nonbeing”--dualistic terms
stemming from traditional Western philosophy--Buddhism is
better explained by a concept of transformation, from which
all things arise and pass back into. Continuity and
practical meaning of form (including conventional thought
and language) are maintained through interconnection and
interdependence. This idea of impermanence does not,
however, mean that the world as we know does not exist, or
that it is literally an “illusion”; it only means that the
world has no permanent, independent reality that is apart
from everything else. The Buddhist view is one that
embraces a middle way, where no extreme views are taken as
acceptable accounts of our situation and experiences.
Instead, our world as we know it is one of transformation
and change, governed by dependent origination. All things
arise and pass away, transforming their states, yielding to
the idea that particular states (or forms) are impermanent,
fleeting, transforming and changing. A concrete example is
the transition of firewood into ash and other various
chemical compounds that are released into the air. Though
the firewood is no longer firewood, it has not vanished,
only transformed its constituents. This example also helps
to explain the Buddhist notion of rebirth previously
discussed.
Dukkha,
often translated as suffering but more accurately
translated by Buddhist scholar David Kalupahana as
unsatisfactoriness, is a human obstacle that prevents the
realization of one’s wholeness and oneness with his or her
experiences (or oneness with his or her Universe). This is
the obstacle that is dealt with through sincere and
deferential practice, such as that found through meditation
(awareness cultivation). During meditative practice, the
human mind enters a state of simple but profound awareness.
[The beneficial physiological changes that take place in
the human brain are well documented in James H. Austin’s
“Zen and the Brain”] This awareness, once cultivated,
allows one to see the world as interconnected and
interdependent. Importantly, this holistic view of our
experiences, free from negative emotions (anger,
frustration, resentment) and predetermined expectations
that may cloud our understanding, must be regularly engaged
through dedicated practice. Though the communicative
ability of human beings is always bound by our
acculturation, our experiences during awareness cultivation
can remain undifferentiated, granting us insight into a
positive, inclusive worldview from which we can effect
important changes in ourselves and our communities.
Meditative practice helps us acknowledge and distance
ourselves from our sense of (an independent) “self” and our
persistent fears that propagate craving, attachment and
dualistic thinking. Regular meditative training--even 15
minutes a day--literally teaches the human brain how to
receive sensory experience without judging it, or attaching
labels to it. Fears associated with craving and attachment,
fleeting moments of our experiences that we wish to
eternalize, are the very source of our unsatisfactoriness.
Impermanence is our condition, but an empowering condition
where positive transformation is possible.
As
mentioned, a basic element of the human situation is
acculturation, or cultural inheritances that are initially
unexamined by us. As they are unexamined, these
inheritances become our habits. Peter Hershock puts it this
way:
Many
of these habits are entirely personal in nature, reflecting
our individual likes and dislikes. But because we are born
into families and communities and cultures, many of the
ways in which our ignorance is habitually patterned are
“inherited.” We are taught what things are and are not by
parents, teachers, and friends but also by our culture more
broadly. By appreciating the emptiness [impermanence] of
all things, we become aware that the world we live in did
not arise randomly, according to inherently fixed
principles, or according to the purely objective operation
of natural laws. Rather, it has taken shape in conformity
with our likes and dislikes, according to our values,
through our intentions, to meet our needs and desires. In
Buddhist terms, our world is an expression of our karma.
(21) (bracketed italics mine)
Through
a recognition and acknowledgment of our acculturation and
habits, we come to see that they are mostly not our own,
but were rather transferred to us from previous
generations, or from our present culture without choice. By
recognizing unsatisfactoriness, we come to see the central
role our inherited habits play in its perpetuation. By
cultivating a deep sense of the impermanence of all things,
we can begin to deconstruct the negative aspects of our
present condition, and replace them with positive
characteristics.
The
acknowledgment of unsatisfactoriness is not considered a
pessimistic concept, but rather a binding condition of
human existence. Until our situation is acknowledged and
confronted, it cannot be transformed in a meaningful way.
The Buddhist path provides a way out of unsatisfactoriness,
and the solution is found in this world.
The
concept of anatman, as selflessness, stems from the idea of
impermanence. One of the sources of unsatisfactoriness for
human beings is the belief in a permanent self, or soul
that is independent and separate. Buddhism acknowledges
that the implications of dependent origination apply to
human beings, and consequently, human existence is
conditioned by causative factors--some knowable and some
unknowable. If human existence is grounded in
interconnectivity and interdependence as our cultivated
experience indicates, then we are governed by them as well.
Cultivating personal insight through Buddhist practice
leads to the recognition that the notion of “self” or
“soul” has no independent, permanent reality, and the
elemental human fear of separation passes away. This
understanding of selflessness is critical to releasing us
from the types of human fears that produce
unsatisfactoriness (fear of death; fear of rejection; fear
of punishment). By embracing selflessness, a freedom
emerges in the Buddhist practitioner that grounds itself in
the realization that our experiences are already unified.
Furthermore, this knowledge of unity, along with dependent
origination, gives rise to the emergence of human
liberation. Without exposure and insight into our unique
and personal situation, we cannot be considered to have
“freedom.” Once we recognize our situation, we can
determine effective solutions to our problems in creative
ways, allowing our freedom to illuminate a meaningful and
positive sense of solidarity with our fellow human beings.
Realization in oneself necessarily includes others as well.
Buddhist
Morality: The Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path
The
Buddha’s realization experience empowered him with insight
into four basic human truths about human unsatisfactoriness
known as the Four Noble Truths. They are:
1)
Unsatisfactoriness exists for human beings;
2) the
cause of unsatisfactoriness is craving, unnatural
attachments and dualistic thinking that neglect an
understanding of dependent origination;
3) there is a path that leads to the cessation of craving
and unnatural attachments of the mind, and thus there is a
way to positively transform unsatisfactoriness;
4) this
path is Eightfold.
The
Eightfold Path:
1) Right View
2) Right
Intention
3) Right Speech
4) Right Action
5) Right Livelihood
6) Right Effort
7) Right Mindfulness
8) Right Concentration
Peter
Hershock has pointed out that the Four Noble Truths are not
to be considered absolute, but rather act as markers that
help to guide us to a meaningful resolution to our central
human problems. Moreover, they are meaningful for us only
when we apply them to our unique circumstances (17).
A
breakdown of the Eightfold Path, found in David
Kalupahana’s text Buddhist Philosophy: A Historical
Analysis, groups (1) Right View and (2) Right Intention as
“Intellectual Understanding,” and (3) Right Speech, (4)
Right, Action, (5) Right Livelihood, and (6) Right Effort
as “Moral Understanding.” The final two parts of the
Eightfold Path, 7) Right Mindfulness and 8) Right
Concentration, are considered “Meditative Understanding,”
and are the result of regular and wholehearted Buddhist
practice. All of the components of the Eightfold Path are
intended to aid the Buddhist practitioner by implementing
the conclusions of Buddhist thought as described in the
above sections, so that his or her thoughts, words and
actions eventually emerge as unmediated reflections of a
deep understanding. Following the Eightfold Path
simultaneously places the Buddhist practitioner on the path
of realization; observing the Eightfold Path is living out
the fruits of realization.
Circularity,
Compassion and the Bodhisattva Ideal
Buddhism
seeks to posit a viable alternative to the view that we
human beings are separate from our experiences, thereby
helping to alleviate the unsatisfactoriness--in all its
various forms--that plaque humanity. The Buddhist
worldview, with its emphasis on cultivating an awareness of
dependent origination, avoids eschatological perspectives,
where a linear progression is charted by its practitioners,
or where an “end times” is awaited. Buddhism asserts a
circular cosmology, where unique and contingent conditions
arise from and pass back into a continuous, connected
transformation. Buddhists see that what is here has always
been here and will always be here, though it will
continually manifest dynamic transformation. There is no
cosmological beginning, a time when our universe did not
exist, nor is there an “Armageddon” in Buddhism. There is
only the here and now--the locus where we can effect
meaningful change in light of our unique situations.
It
is in the here and now where the Buddhist practitioners
effect positive transformation in their world. During this
change and transformation—during the betweeness of everyday
life—authentic, realizing persons act as guides for other
human beings in how they live out their lives, serving
others by example. This altruism is a natural result of
realization. One who sees our experiences as unified, acts
in ways that cherish this holistic view.
The
natural emergence of altruism in the person who sees our
condition as connected allows for a unique concept to arise
in Buddhism. The Bodhisattva ideal is the conclusion to
realization. Though there are various cultural and
sectarian differences in the understanding of the
Bodhisattva, Buddhism as a whole acknowledges the living
role of the realizing person as one of a guide for others,
by being an example of the possibility of living life as an
outstanding human being.
Perhaps
the most important point is that average, everyday human
beings are those who achieve realization. Authenticating
themselves, freeing themselves from the cycle of
unsatisfactoriness, these average, everyday persons share
their positive and transformative approach with others
through skillful means. Freedom from unsatisfactoriness
does not require divine abilities or magic, nor material
wealth, intellectual intensity or physical prowess. Anyone
who accepts the personal responsibility of simple and
modest, daily practice can work to discover the personal
issues that prevent their own realization of dependent
origination. The Buddhist practice of awareness cultivation
aims to do just this. Meditation is the central Buddhist
tool for this positive self-transformation.
Meditation is our simplest tool,
Breathing in...
...Breathing out,
Seeing the world anew.
Selected
Bibliography
Hershock,
Peter D. “Chan Buddhism.”
Kalupahana,
David J. “Buddhist Philosophy: A Historical Analysis.”
Kalupahana, David J. “The Way of Siddhartha: A Life of the
Buddha”
Rorty, Richard. “Philosophy as Cultural Politics.”
Shaner, David E. “The Bodymind Experience in Japanese
Buddhism”
Shaner, David E. (Personal Communication; Furman
University)
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